HUMAN EYE OF DETAIL AND FUNCTIONS

                                      HUMAN   EYE

The human eye is an organ that reacts to light and has several purposes. As a conscious sense organ, the mammalian eye allows vision. Rodand cone cells in the retina allow conscious light perception and vision including color differentiation and the perception of depth. The human eye can distinguish about 10 million colors.

Similar to the eyes of other mammals, the human eye's non-image-forming photosensitive ganglion cells in the retina receive light signals which affect adjustment of the size of the pupil, regulation and suppression of the hormone melatonin and entrainment of the body clock.

General properties:-

The eye is not shaped like a perfect sphere, rather it is a fused two-piece unit. The smaller frontal unit, more curved, called the cornea is linked to the larger unit called the sclera. The corneal segment is typically about 8 mm (0.3 in) in radius. The sclerotic chamber constitutes the remaining five-sixths; its radius is typically about 12 mm. The cornea and sclera are connected by a ring called the limbus.
Human Iris, Blue type
The iris – the color of the eye – and its black center, the pupil, are seen instead of the cornea due to the cornea's transparency. To see inside the eye, an ophthalmoscope is needed, since light is not reflected out. The fundus (area opposite the pupil) shows the characteristic pale optic disk (papilla), where vessels entering the eye pass across and optic nerve fibers depart the globe.

How the Human Eye Works

The human eye belongs to a general group of eyes found in nature called “camera-type eyes.” Instead of film, the human eye focuses light onto a light sensitive membrane called the retina.

Here’s how the human eye is put together and how it works:

The cornea is a transparent structure found in the very front of the eye that helps to focus incoming light. Behind the cornea is a colored ring-shaped membrane called the iris. The iris has an adjustable circular opening called the pupil, which can expand or contract depending on the amount of light entering the eye.

A clear fluid called the aqueous humor fills the space between the cornea and the iris.

Situated behind the pupil is a colorless, transparent structure called the crystalline lens. Ciliary muscles surround the lens. The muscles hold the lens in place but they also play an important role in vision.

When the muscles relax, they pull on and flatten the lens, allowing the eye to see objects that are far away. To see closer objects clearly, the ciliary muscle must contract in order to thicken the lens.

The interior chamber of the eyeball is filled with a jelly-like tissue called the vitreous humor. After passing through the lens, light must travel through this humor before striking the sensitive layer of cells called the retina.

The retina is the innermost of three tissue layers that make up the eye. The outermost layer, called the sclera, is what gives most of the eyeball its white color. The cornea is also a part of outer layer.

The middle layer between the retina and sclera is called the choroid. The choroid contains blood vessels that supply the retina with nutrients and oxygen and removes its waste products.

Embedded in the retina are millions of light sensitive cells, which come in two main varieties: rods and cones.

Rods are good for monochrome vision in poor light, while cones are used for color and for the detection of fine detail. Cones are packed into a part of the retina directly behind the retina called the fovea.

When light strikes either the rods or the cones of the retina, it's converted into an electric signal that is relayed to the brain via the optic nerve. The brain then translates the electrical signals into the images we see.

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The eye in detail

                                                                                                                                                                                      THANK YOU

ANTI BODY

                             --------: ANTIBODY:--------

WHAT IS AN ANTIBODY:-

Antibodies are large Y-shaped proteins. They are recruited by the immune system to identify and neutralize foreign objects like bacteria and viruses.

Humoral immune system:-

Each antibody has a unique target known as the antigen present on the invading organism. This antigen is like a key that helps the antibody in identifying the organism. This is because both the antibody and the antigen have similar structure at the tips of their “Y” structures. 
Just like every lock has a single key, an antibody has a single antigen key. When the key is inserted into the lock, the antibody activates, tagging or neutralizing its target. The production of antibodies is the main function of the humoral immune system.

Antibodies and immunoglobulins:-

Immunoglobulins are basically proteins that function as antibodies. The terms antibody and immunoglobulin are often used interchangeably.

Immunoglobulins are found in blood and other tissues and fluids. They are made by the plasma cells that are derived from the B cells of the immune system. B cells of the immune system become plasma cells when activated by the binding of a specific antigen on its antibody surfaces. In some cases, the interaction of the B cell with a T helper cell is also necessary.

Antibodies and antigens:-

Antigens are classically defined as any foreign substance that elicits an immune response. They are also called immunogens. The specific region on an antigen that an antibody recognizes and binds to is called the epitope, or antigenic determinant.

An epitope is usually made up of a 5-8 amino acid long chain on the surface of the protein. The chain of amino acids does not exist in a 2 dimensional structure but appears as a 3 dimensional structure. An epitope may only be recognized in its form as it exists in solution, or its native 3D form. If the epitope exists on a single polypeptide chain, it is a continuous, or linear epitope. The antibody may bind to only fragments or denatured segments of a protein or to the native basic protein.

Types of antibodies and their structures:-

Serum containing antigen-specific antibodies is called antiserum. There are five classes of immunoglobulins including IgM, IgG, IgA, IgD, and IgE.

The basic structure of all antibodies are same. There are four polypeptide chains held together by disulfide bonds. These four polypeptide chains form a symmetrical molecular structure.

There are two identical halves with the antigen binding sites between the ends of the heavy and light chains on both sides. There is a hinge in the center between heavy chains to allow flexibility to the protein. The two light chains are identical to each other. They contain around 220 amino acids while the heave chains have 440 amino acids.

There are two types of light chain among all classes of immunoglobulin, a lambda chain and a kappa chain. Both are similar in function. Each type of immunoglobulin has a different type of heavy chain.

Antibody functions:-

The antibody binds to specific antigens. This signals the other cells of the immune system to get rid of the invading microbes. The strength of binding between the antibody and an antigen at a single binding site is known as the antibody’s affinity for the antigen. The affinity between the antibody and the antigen binding site is determined by the type of bond formed.

Since an antigen can have multiple different epitopes, a number of antibodies can bind to the protein. When two or more antigen binding sites are identical, an antibody can form a stronger bond with the antigen.

How Lymphocytes Produce Antibody

The scanning electron micrograph (right) shows a human macrophage (gray) approaching a chain of Streptococcus pyogenes (yellow). Riding atop the macrophage is a spherical lymphocyte. Both macrophages and lymphocytes can be found near an infection, and the interaction between these cells is important in eliminating infection. Below is an animation that illustrates the basic cell-cell interactions that lead to antibody production can be seen in the accompanying animation.

 Antigen Processing:-

When the macrophage eats bacteria, proteins (antigens) from the bacteria are broken down into short peptide chains and those peptides are then "displayed" on the macrophage surface attached to special molecules called MHC II (for Major Histocompatibility Complex Class II). Bacterial peptides are similarly processed and displayed on MHC II molecules on the surface of B lymphocytes.

 

Helper T Cell Stimulating B Cell

When a T lymphocyte "sees" the same peptide on the macrophage and on the B cell, the T cell stimulates the B cell to turn on antibody production.

 

Antibody Production:-

The stimulated B cell undergoes repeated cell divisions, enlargement and differentiation to form a clone of antibody secreting plasma cells. Hence. through specific antigen recognition of the invader, clonal expansion and B cell differentiation you acquire an effective number of plasma cells all secreting the same needed antibody. That antibody then binds to the bacteria making them easier to ingest by white cells. Antibody combined with a plasma component called "complement" may also kill the bacteria directly.

 

Some Keywords:-

antigen presenting cell, dendritic cell, macrophage, Helper T lymphocyte, B lymphocyte, plasma cell, complement, major histocompatibility complex.

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ICAM1 Antibodies Interleukin-10 Antibodies Interleukin-17A Antibodies Interleukin-2 receptor alpha Antibodies Interleukin-4 Antibodies Interleukin-6 Antibodies ki-67 Antibodies Mitogen-activated protein kinase 14 Antibodies p40 Antibodies p53 Antibodies Peripheral myelin protein 22 Antibodies Prion Protein Antibodies Transmembrane protease serine 11D Antibodies Ubiquitin Antibodies Vimentin Antibodies VP16 epitope tag Antibodies THANK YOU

BIO FERTILIZER

                                    BIO FERTILIZERS

  

Introduction to Bio Fertilizers:-

‘Biofertilizer’ is a substance which contains living microorganisms which, when applied to seed, plant surfaces, or soil, colonizes the rhizosphere or the interior of the plant and promotes growth by increasing the supply or availability of primary nutrients to the host plant. Biofertilizers add nutrients through the natural processes of Nitrogen fixation, solubilizing phosphorus, and stimulating plant growth through the synthesis of growth promoting substances. Biofertilizers can be expected to reduce the use of chemical fertilizer and pesticides. The microorganisms in biofertilizers restore the soil’s natural nutrient cycle and build soil organic matter. Through the use of biofertilizers, healthy plants can be grown while enhancing the sustainability and the health of soil.

Biofertilizers are Eco-friendly organic agro-input and more cost effective than chemical fertilizers. Biofertilizers like Rhizobium, Azetobacter, Azospirillum and blue green algae (BGA) are in use since long time ago. Rhizobiuminoculant is used for leguminous crops. Azetobacter can be used with crops like wheat , maize, mustard, cotton, potato and other vegetable crops. Azospirillum inoculants are recommended mainly for sorghum, millets, maize, sugarcane and wheat. Blue green algae belonging to genera Nostoc, Anabaena, Tolypothrix and Aulosira fix atmospheric nitrogen and are used as inoculants for paddy crop grown both under upland and low land conditions. Anabaena in association with water fern Azolla contributes nitrogen up to 60 kg/ha/season and also enriches soils with organic matter other types of bacteria, so-called phosphate solubilizing bacteria like Pantoea agglomerans strain P5, and Pseudomonas putida strain P13 are able to solubilize the insoluble phosphate from organic and inorganic phosphate source. In fact, due to immobilization of phosphate by mineral ions such as Fe, Al and Ca or organic acids, the rate of available phosphate (Pi) in soil is well below plant needs.

In addition, chemical Pi fertilizer are also immobilized in the soil immediately so that less than 20 percent of added fertilizer is absorbed by plants. Therefore, reduction in Pi resources, on one hand, and environmental pollutions resulted from both production and applications of chemical Pi fertilizer, on the other hand, have already demanded the use of new generation of phosphate fertilizers globally known as phosphate solubilizing bacteria or phosphate biofertilizers. Current Research Currently research is in process on biofertilizers in our R&D lab. Orbit Biotech plans to provide an ecofriendly solution to the agriculture society by offering effective biofertilizers. This endeavour would relieve the chemical burden the environment is facing owing to the excessive an indiscriminate use of chemical based pesticides. Benefits of using Biofertilizers As it is living thing, it can symbiotically associate with plant root. Involved microorganisms could readily and safely convert complex organic material in simple compound, so that plant easily taken up. Microorganism function is in long duration causing improvement of the soil fertility. It maintains the natural habitat of the soil. It increases crop yield by 20-30%. Replace chemical nitrogen and phosphorus by 25% in addition to stimulating of the plant growth. Finally it can provide protection against drought and some soil borne diseases.

Advantages of Biofertilizers:-

Cost effective relative to chemical fertilizer and reduces the costs towards fertilizers use, especially regarding nitrogen and phosphorus. It is environmentally friendly fertilizer that not only prevents damaging the natural source but helps to some extend clean the nature from precipitated chemical fertilizer.And can provide better nourishment to plants

                                                                                                                                                                   

One of the major concerns in today's world is the pollution and contamination of soil. The use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides has caused tremendous harm to the environment. An answer to this is the biofertilizer, an environmentally friendly fertilizer now used in most countries. Biofertilizers are organisms that enrich the nutrient quality of soil. The main sources of biofertilizers are bacteria, fungi, and cynobacteria (blue-green algae). The most  striking relationship that these have with plants is symbiosis, in which the partners derive benefits from each other.

Plants have a number of relationships with fungi, bacteria, and algae, the most common of which are with mycorrhiza, rhizobium, and cyanophyceae. These are known to deliver a number of benefits including plant nutrition, disease resistance, and tolerance to adverse soil and climatic conditions. These techniques have proved to be successful biofertilizers that form a health relationship with the roots. 

Biofertilizers will help solve such problems as increased salinity of the soil and chemical run-offs from the agricultural fields. Thus, biofertilizers are important if we are to ensure a healthy future for the generations to come.

Mycorrhiza:-

Mycorrhizae are a group of fungi that include a number of types based on the different structures formed inside or outside the root. These are specific fungi that match with a number of favourable parameters of the the host plant on which it grows. This includes soil type, the presence of particular chemicals in the soil types, and other conditions.

These fungi grow on the roots of these plants. In fact, seedlings that have mycorrhizal fungi growing on their roots survive better after transplantation and grow faster. The fungal symbiont gets shelter and food from the plant which, in turn, acquires an array of benefits such as better uptake of phosphorus, salinity and drought tolerance, maintenance of water balance, and overall increase in plant growth and development.

While selecting fungi, the right fungi have to be matched with the plant. There are specific fungi for vegetables, fodder crops, flowers, trees, etc.

Mycorrhizal fungi can increase the yield of a plot of land by 30%-40%. It can absorb phosphorus from the soil and pass it on to the plant. Mycorrhizal plants show higher tolerance to high soil temperatures, various soil- and root-borne pathogens, and heavy metal toxicity.

Legume-rhizobium relationship:-

Leguminous plants require high quantities of nitrogen compared to other plants. Nitrogen is
an inert gas and its uptake is possible only in fixed form, which is facilitated by the rhizobium
bacteria present in the nodules of the root system. The bacterium lives in the soil to form root
nodules (i.e. outgrowth on roots) in plants such as beans, gram, groundnut, and soybean. 

Blue-green algae:-

Blue-green algae are considered the simplest, living autotrophic plants, i.e. organisms capable of building up food materials from inorganic matter. They are microscopic. Blue-green algae are widely distributed in the aquatic environment. Some of them are responsible for water blooms in stagnant water. They adapt to extreme weather conditions and are found in snow and in hot springs, where the water is 85 °C.

Certain blue-green algae live intimately with other organisms in a symbiotic relationship. Some are associated with the fungi in form of lichens. The ability of blue-green algae tophotosynthesize food and fix atmospheric nitrogen accounts for their symbiotic associations and also for their presence in paddy fields.

Blue-green algae are of immense economic value as they add organic matter to the soil and increase soil fertility. Barren alkaline lands in India have been reclaimed and made productive by inducing the proper growth of certain blue-green algae.